Today, many disciplines from the physical, life, behavioral, and (particularly) social sciences (most of which are "Johnny-come-latelies" in the scientific community) disparage geography as nothing more than a declarative knowledge base-a filing cabinet full of useless facts about geographic features and human production systems that continually become outdated. While it may be argued that, throughout much of its history, geographical science appeared to be primarily descriptive, what many critics and scoffers fail to realize is that geography was practiced as an inductive science requiring extensive empirical verification of its hypotheses (e.g., about "the Great South Land"-Australia-or that one could get to the East by sailing west ([Columbus]).
Generalizations were possible only after collecting factual evidence from many different places (hence the "exploration" base of the discipline). Spatial relations embedded in the huge data sets needed to encompass these environments were not obvious and had to be "teased out"-as by making thematic maps and visually comparing them. For example, it was not until the 19th century that enough data were collected for Köppen to put forward a classification of the world's climates. Without the expertise to discover these relations (codified by geographers as spatial distributions, spatial patterns, shapes, networks, hierarchies, spatial clusters, regions, adjacencies, and spatial associations, among others), other social sciences-such as economics, political science, and sociology-routinely ignored or assumed away spatial variations in the location of human and physical phenomena and the spatial interactions between them, thus working in the most abstract and unreal of all worlds-the spaceless society.
By so doing, however, these sciences were quick to take advantage of the power of deductive reasoning and used it to create powerful normative theories-theories of ideal states articulating how things "should" be, "ceterus paribus" (i.e., "all other things being equal"). In most cases, "all other things" meant the environment and its endless variations, assumed to be universally uniform. What a ridiculous assumption in all but abstract, unreal worlds.
It was perhaps the lack of this deductive theoretical power that most differentiated inductive geographers from other deductive scientists and prompted a change for the worse in geography's image. This change was not universal, being concentrated largely in the USA. Geography in the rest of the world retains its position among the core disciplines and is taught at all levels from K-16.
In the USA, decades ago, many state curricula committees dropped geography as a separate subject, usually replacing it with history-dominated "social studies." But the past two decades have seen a positive response to efforts by the Association of American Geographers (AAG), the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE), the American Geographical Society (AGS), and (perhaps the most effective of all) the National Geographic Society (NGS) to get geography back into school curricula. The Geography Standards-Geography for Life Project has identified fundamental concepts and relations of geographic science; the College Board has just instituted (Fall 2000) an Advanced Placement test in Human Geography; and 52 State Geography Alliances, with 130,000 teacher members, are working to restore the place of geography in school curricula.
A goal of these activities is to positively change the outdated image of geography as a useless storehouse of dated environmental facts, replacing it with an image of geography as an innovative, technical, and theoretically inspired discipline. These efforts have laid the groundwork for the cascading of geographic knowledge and understanding needed so much by workforce participants in the 21st century's age of information technology.
The point of this column is to renew your acquaintance with geography as a necessary science in the 21st century. Along with a great deal of public ignorance of basic geographic facts (listen to the amazing answers given to geography questions on Jeopardy and So You Want To Be a Millionaire for abundant evidence of this ignorance), there is still a reluctance to admit the worth of an education in geography, and as much reluctance to publicly admit that geographers contribute in leading ways to solving national and local problems concerning human and physical environments.
Today, the largest specialty areas of the Association of American Geographers (AAG) include GIS, Computer Cartography and Computer Graphics, Remote Sensing and Image Processing, and Urban Geography. Specialty groups also focus on Geomorphology, Ecology, Biogeography, Climatology, Water Resources, Hazards and Risk, Transportation, Mathematical Models, Cultural Geography, Cognitive and Behavioral Geography, and many other systematic and regional specializations (see Table 1).
Table 1
1999 AAG Topical and Areal Proficiencies and Specialty Group Membership
The AAG Membership for 1999 totaled 6,527. In 1998 the membership total was 6,910. The following numbers of members have claimed these
topical and areal proficiencies and memberships in AAG Specialty Groups
| Topical Proficiencies | 1998 | 1999 | |
| 01 | Agricultural Geography | 168 | 167 |
| 02 | Applied Geography | 165 | 162 |
| 03 | Arid Regions | 79 | 74 |
| 04 | Biogeography | 281 | 274 |
| 05 | Cartography | 556 | 542 |
| 06 | Climatology | 366 | 344 |
| 07 | Cultural Ecology | 232 | 220 |
| 08 | Cultural Geography | 757 | 785 |
| 09 | Developmental Studies | 193 | 185 |
| 10 | Earth Science | 171 | 167 |
| 11 | Economic Development | 284 | 278 |
| 12 | Economic Geography | 573 | 549 |
| 13 | Educational Geography | 202 | 194 |
| 14 | Energy | 56 | 54 |
| 15 | Environmental Perception | 160 | 136 |
| 16 | Environmental Science | 254 | 239 |
| 17 | Environmental Studies (Conservation) | 539 | 530 |
| 18 | Field Methods | 69 | 56 |
| 19 | Gender | 197 | 217 |
| 20 | GIS | 1203 | 1159 |
| 21 | Geographic Theory | 86 | 84 |
| 22 | Geomorphology | 366 | 362 |
| 23 | Global Change | 201 | 189 |
| 24 | Hazards | 166 | 159 |
| 25 | History of Cartography Historical Cartography | 64 | 62 |
| 26 | Historical Geography | 504 | 498 |
| 27 | History of Geography | 82 | 88 |
| 28 | Land Use and Conversion | 210 | 209 |
| 29 | Librarianship, Geographical | 35 | 27 |
| 30 | Location Theory | 81 | 74 |
| 31 | Marine Resources | 51 | 55 |
| 32 | Marketing Geography | 85 | 73 |
| 33 | Medical Geography | 179 | 177 |
| 34 | Military Geography | 68 | 61 |
| 35 | Mountain Environments | 109 | 97 |
| 36 | Oceanography | 32 | 27 |
| 37 | Physical Geography | 500 | 464 |
| 38 | Planning, Environmental | 212 | 209 |
| 39 | Planning, Regional | 215 | 201 |
| 40 | Planning, Urban | 311 | 299 |
| 41 | Political Geography | 406 | 394 |
| 42 | Population Geography | 329 | 320 |
| 43 | Quantitative Methods | 262 | 262 |
| 44 | Recreational Geography | 139 | 120 |
| 45 | Regional Geography | 242 | 242 |
| 46 | Remote Sensing | 475 | 459 |
| 47 | Resource Geography | 110 | 108 |
| 48 | Rural Geography | 158 | 164 |
| 49 | Social Geography | 306 | 317 |
| 50 | Soils Geography | 80 | 79 |
| 51 | Teaching Techniques | 107 | 97 |
| 52 | Transportation and Communication | 235 | 225 |
| 53 | University/Other Administration | 47 | 40 |
| 54 | Urban Geography | 822 | 824 |
| 55 | Water Resources | 336 | 316 |
| Area Proficiencies | 1998 | 1999 | |
| 01 | World | 631 | 620 |
| 02 | Polar Regions | 105 | 101 |
| 03 | Pacific Rim | 129 | 136 |
| 10 | Australia | 119 | 116 |
| 11 | New Zealand | 61 | 56 |
| 12 | Pacific Islands | 110 | 111 |
| 15 | North America (Anglo) | 628 | 621 |
| 20 | Canada | 323 | 330 |
| 21 | Territories | 28 | 25 |
| 22 | Pacific Coast and Rim | 35 | 50 |
| 23 | Prairie and Central Provinces | 40 | 38 |
| 24 | Ontario | 74 | 75 |
| 25 | Quebec | 25 | 21 |
| 26 | Atlantic Provinces | 19 | 17 |
| 30 | United States of America (AAG Division Boundaries) | 1159 | 1145 |
| 31 | New England | 117 | 142 |
| 32 | Middle States | 181 | 168 |
| 33 | Middle Atlantic | 172 | 169 |
| 34 | Southeastern | 337 | 315 |
| 35 | Southwestern | 343 | 335 |
| 36 | Pacific Coast | 390 | 370 |
| 37 | Great Plains Rocky Mountains | 385 | 374 |
| 38 | West Lakes | 181 | 174 |
| 39 | East Lakes | 111 | 112 |
| 40 | Latin America (Hispanic America) | 484 | 468 |
| 41 | Mexico | 223 | 223 |
| 42 | Central America (Spanish) | 159 | 171 |
| 43 | Caribbean Islands | 182 | 174 |
| 50 | South America | 124 | 115 |
| 51 | Northern SA | 32 | 31 |
| 52 | Brazil | 80 | 65 |
| 53 | Southern SA | 36 | 33 |
| 54 | Andean SA | 82 | 76 |
| 60 | Europe | 359 | 367 |
| 61 | Scandinavia | 84 | 77 |
| 62 | Western Europe | 312 | 302 |
| 63 | Baltic States | 21 | 23 |
| 64 | Southern Europe | 78 | 82 |
| 65 | Central Europe | 107 | 95 |
| 66 | Eastern Europe | 108 | 112 |
| 70 | Former Soviet Union | 181 | 181 |
| 71 | Russia | 56 | 66 |
| 72 | Ukraine | 11 | 10 |
| 73 | Central Asian States | 36 | 34 |
| 80 | Asia | 215 | 221 |
| 81 | China | 214 | 218 |
| 82 | Japan | 120 | 116 |
| 83 | Korea | 53 | 56 |
| 84 | Southeast Asia | 206 | 199 |
| 85 | South Asia | 185 | 161 |
| 86 | Southwest Asia (Mideast) | 191 | 179 |
| 90 | Africa | 226 | 212 |
| 91 | North Africa | 61 | 59 |
| 92 | West Africa | 98 | 82 |
| 93 | Central Africa | 16 | 13 |
| 94 | East Africa | 112 | 106 |
| 95 | Southern Africa | 109 | 111 |
| Specialty Groups | 1998 | 1999 | |
| 01 | Africa | 206 | 188 |
| 02 | Aging and the Aged | 56 | 56 |
| 03 | American Ethnic Geography | 112 | 119 |
| 04 | American Indians | 100 | 87 |
| 05 | Applied Geography | 338 | 313 |
| 06 | Asian Geography | 174 | 172 |
| 07 | Bible | 55 | 43 |
| 08 | Biogeography | 299 | 283 |
| 09 | Canadian Studies | 81 | 73 |
| 10 | Cartography | 542 | 472 |
| 11 | China | 133 | 129 |
| 12 | Climate | 331 | 318 |
| 13 | Coastal and Marine | 177 | 166 |
| 14 | Contemporary Agriculture and Rural Land Use | 211 | 263 |
| 15 | Cryosphere | 79 | 64 |
| 16 | Cultural Ecology | 350 | 313 |
| 17 | Cultural Geography | 458 | 454 |
| 18 | Disability | ||
| 19 | Economic Geography | 396 | 429 |
| 20 | Energy and Environment | 205 | 173 |
| 21 | Environmental Perception and Behavioral Geography | 242 | 209 |
| 22 | European | 182 | 166 |
| 23 | GIS | 1349 | 1246 |
| 24 | Geographic Perspectives on Women | 385 | 350 |
| 25 | Geography Education | 348 | 653 |
| 26 | Geography of Religions and Belief Systems | 125 | 123 |
| 27 | Geomorphology | 430 | 397 |
| 28 | Hazards | 204 | 187 |
| 29 | Historical Geography | 423 | 383 |
| 30 | History of Geography | 131 | 134 |
| 31 | Human Dimensions of Global Change | 197 | 208 |
| 32 | Human Rights | 97 | 102 |
| 33 | Latin American | 330 | 302 |
| 34 | Mathematical Models & Quantitative Methods | 287 | 272 |
| 35 | Medical Geography | 211 | 210 |
| 36 | Microcomputer | 346 | 224 |
| 37 | Military Geography | 116 | 91 |
| 38 | Mountain Geography | -- | 2 |
| 39 | Political Geography | 337 | 319 |
| 40 | Population | 273 | 254 |
| 41 | Qualitative Research | -- | -- |
| 42 | Recreation, Tourism, and Sport | 259 | 229 |
| 43 | Regional Development and Planning | 366 | 328 |
| 44 | Remote Sensing | 498 | 482 |
| 45 | Rural Development | 247 | 161 |
| 46 | Russian, Central Eurasian, and East European | 194 | 174 |
| 47 | Sexuality and Space | 125 | 84 |
| 48 | Socialist Geography | 243 | 212 |
| 49 | Transportation Geography | 228 | 191 |
| 50 | Urban Geography | 795 | 739 |
| 51 | Values, Ethics, and Justice | 140 | 135 |
| 52 | Water Resources | 348 | 319 |
| 53 | Worldwide Web | -- | -- |
| Affinity Groups | |||
| 01 | Community College | 124 | 40 |
| 02 | Retired Geographers | --- | 48 |
Despite this richness of experiences, many people know little of geography and are reluctant to give geographers credit for their academic, social, political, environmental, and technical contributions. For example, in the August Newsletter of the AAG, Director Ron Abler emphasized this point by referring to the continued reluctance of the book review editor of the Chronicle of Higher Education to identify authors as geographers (preferring to hide their identities under labels such as "environmental science") and the lack of recognition by David Mellicoff in Science that the current chair and two other members of the Landsat 7 Science Team were geographers from the University of Maryland, Boston University, and Michigan State University.
This reluctance to use the term "geographer" to describe a scientist trained in a 3000-year-old academic profession seems unexplainable-and untenable. Geographers today are immersed in many physical, biotic, life, behavioral, and social science problem solving scenarios. In my last column I gave examples of recent projects initiated by geographers, ranging from studies of the ecological effects of removing many of the nation's dams to building a nationally accessible Digital Map and Imagery Library. Other examples include: the exploration of distant learning techniques for K-12 education; exploration of human behavior in virtual environments; optimizing flows through different transportation networks (air; road; rail; pipeline); developing vulnerability science; using satellite imagery to revise global maps; evaluating the effects of near-shore ocean pollution; examining the effects of hurricanes on human occupancy of contact areas; and using mental maps to identify most likely areas of criminal activity.
Geographers bring their unique spatial viewpoints to bear on these problems, adding dimensions of understanding that go beyond that offered by other individual sciences. Geographers present an integrated scientific view of problems and provide solutions that both complement and go beyond single science solutions. If-as is being touted at the highest levels of government, business, and academia-"integrated science" is the way of the future, then today's geography stands as a viable model for the way such integration can be pursued.
But we need more than acceptance as a model. Geography as a core science contributing to general knowledge must again be acknowledged. No longer should trained geographers have to search for jobs under titles such as "environmental specialist," "spatial or regional economist," "social statistician," "earth system scientists," or "information scientist," and the like-although geographers are qualified to hold any of the posts. And geography salaries, even in the academic domain, are on average in the upper half of the salary range (see Table 2).
Table 2
| Private | Public | |
| Accounting | $67,549 | $70,634 |
| Administrative and secretarial services | 38,850 | 52,372 |
| Agricultural business and production | 45,195 | 64,644 |
| Anthropology | 60,085 | 56,391 |
| Architecture and related programs | 59,059 | 59,357 |
| Area, ethnic, and cultural studies | 56,257 | 59,697 |
| Bioengineering and biomedical engineering | 77,089 | 69,118 |
| Biology, general | 53,155 | 58,396 |
| Botany | 48,168 | 57,931 |
| Business administration and management | 65,054 | 66,464 |
| Business management and administrative services | 65,077 | 77,628 |
| Business and managerial economics | 63,826 | 65,029 |
| Cell and molecular biology | 59,876 | 61,379 |
| Chemical engineering | 80,931 | 77,474 |
| Chemistry | 55,556 | 58,977 |
| Civil engineering | 71,230 | 70,705 |
| Classical and ancient Near Eastern languages and literatures | 56,368 | 58,360 |
| Clinical psychology | 54,961 | 55,174 |
| Communications | 47,588 | 50,148 |
| Communications technologies | 49,331 | 53,184 |
| Counselor education | 54,045 | 52,681 |
| Criminal justice and corrections | 43,434 | 51,159 |
| Curriculum and instruction | 52,735 | 50,535 |
| Drama and theatre arts | 48,134 | 49,218 |
| Education | 49,137 | 54,369 |
| Education administration and supervision | 55,249 | 56,221 |
Electrical, electronics, an
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