The GIS professional faces many challenges, especially as governments continue to embrace a digitized world. Whether it's gathering and sharing accurate data, deploying the most up-to-date software, or improving cross-department collaboration, access to the right tools can accelerate GIS transformation and help government entities build the smart cities of tomorrow.

Digital transformation is vast, complex, often groundbreaking, and always necessary. Whether you’re a multi-billion-dollar organization or a government department or agency, evolving your processes to address your challenges is vital if you wish to succeed.

And government teams — GIS teams, in particular — have significant challenges. Overseeing multiple software applications that need to share data, keeping up-to-date on the latest software releases, maintaining better communication with residents — the list goes on.

So, how do advances in GIS technology support digital transformation in the government sector? Nearmap looked at the challenges of their GIS customers and helped them improve workflows using its platform. 

Budgets are complicated. Procurement even more so. GIS teams are responsible for assets, tools, and systems that are shared with cross-functional teams, and their outputs are usually on behalf of others. This makes for convoluted procurement processes, which can prevent government teams from moving forward with much needed technologies.

“Keeping GIS data accurate and up to date is difficult with one annual aerial capture, but Nearmap has changed that. They offer a proactive survey program which allows us to keep our GIS datasets as recent as possible so we can keep pace with rapid growth” -  Shane Burnham, GIS Analyst, The City of Carmel, IN

Aerial imagery is essential to government departments. When the truth on the ground forms the foundations of the future, fidelity is not just important: it’s vital. Many GIS teams need two or three flyovers a year simply to remain current with development changes. However, most simply don’t have the budget to procure bespoke flyovers. In the face of procurement challenges, they have to make do with outdated flyovers supplemented with low-resolution satellite imagery instead of the up-to-date high-resolution geospatial data they need.

Nearmap provides a sub-3” ground sampling distance (GSD) per pixel that delivers imagery clear enough to count the tiles on someone’s roof when calculating roof pitch. Further, Nearmap captures locations up to three times per year — covering 700 urban and regional areas — so GIS teams no longer have to worry about finding budget for bespoke flights when up-to-date information is required. 

GIS professionals deal with vast quantities of geospatial data —especially when you need to analyze everything from emergency routes to stormwater runoff. But data is only useful when it’s good data: sufficient, accurate, timely, current, and — ideally — comparable.

Correcting inaccurate data costs time, resources, and money — three things most GIS teams are in short supply of. Adopting technologies that digitally transform data collection allows you to level-up the information you work with. The more comprehensive the data, the more accurate, agile, and informed your projects, developments, and analysis will be.

Nearmap thrives on data as much as you do, which is why they strive to capture as much information as we can every time they fly. They continually survey the regions that matter most to you, capturing sufficient, accurate, timely, current, and comparable data. This enables GIS professionals to detect changes more often, in just a couple of clicks, with instant access to the Nearmap catalog of current and historical imagery, georeferenced to show you truth over time. 

“High-resolution aerial content from Nearmap gives us a better view of our assets in the field and allows us to understand how variables like new development or road maintenance are impacting the conditions of those assets” – Wade Allsup, Information Systems Specialist, Yucaipa Valley Water District

GIS professionals are at the pulse of every government organization, deriving data and insights, and creating web applications for government departments. Every piece of data GIS teams generate, every insight they glean, and every report they publish tells a story that enables someone in another department to perform more effectively.

Aerial imagery plays a significant role in this storytelling for many sectors. The tight alignment between the two means that GIS professionals from all government sectors — small, local teams to national agencies — use Nearmap imagery to create detailed base layer maps that integrate directly into their GIS, CAD, and open-source mapping platforms.

An informed team is a cohesive team. Miscommunication results in prolonged projects and duplicated work. Digital technologies that make it easier to leverage data internally ensure everyone remains on the same page throughout.

The most important stakeholder in government is the general public. Residents want to know what’s happening in their communities surrounding publicly funded government initiatives.

Citizens want to know about government plans to tackle zoning or areas of new development; about emergency routes and road closures; updates to land use and land classification; and information on construction delays and events. They also want to feel confident that their county holds their correct parcel information permitting and taxation purposes. However, the way this information is collated would often be unintelligible and, frankly, dull to the average person. 

The raw data GIS analysts work with isn’t appropriate. How you present your story is as important as the story itself if you want people to understand and be interested in what you have to say.

They say a picture speaks a thousand words, and never is this truer than when sharing geospatial information with everyday people. Nearmap’s high-resolution vertical imagery allows you to bring cities to life.

"As a local government GIS Manager, my goal is to always provide the highest quality and most up-to-date authoritative information. My team and I strive to have a single source of data so that all users – internal and external – have consistent access to our communication tools and platforms.” – Lauri Sohl, Civic Analytics/GIS Manager, City of Sioux Falls, South Dakota

Transform your GIS workflows – download the ebook.

The government sector has come a long way in adopting new processes and technologies, but it remains a slow journey. The need for change, however, is accelerating and digital transformation is a necessity, not a luxury.

More government departments than ever are utilizing GIS data and aerial imagery to achieve a level of insight and intelligence they simply cannot get from ground level. Assessment, utilities, AEC, transportation, public works, public safety — every sector is becoming more reliant on technology to get the job done, GIS in disaster management is expected to hit a global market size of $9.4 billion by 2030, and government teams across the world are investing in GIS solutions for homeland security, aerospace, and military applications.

Nearmap fuels digital transformation in government entities — traditionally a conservative sector when it comes to embracing new processes — by giving their teams access to high-resolution, up-to-date, contextual geospatial intelligence. 

Founded in Australia in 2007, Nearmap is one of the ten largest aerial survey companies in the world by annual data collection volume and is publicly listed in the ASX 200.

Articles

Top 4 Challenges in Government for Digital Transformation in GIS

Editor’s note: Thank you for joining us for this edition of GeoInspirations. Today our distinguished columnist, Dr. Joseph Kerski, features Stacey Stark, instructor of GIS and geography, and director of the Geospatial Analysis Center at the University of Minnesota Duluth, Minnesota, U.S.

I have had the very great pleasure of getting to know thousands of wonderful educators over my career. One of my favorites is Stacey Stark. I think after reading this column, you will be as inspired as I have been with all of her accomplishments but, also, with how she remains focused on the accomplishments of those she mentors. I have met many of her students over the years and it is clear that their academic pathway and subsequent career have been positively influenced by interacting with Stacey.

Describe her current position and background. “My position is the director of the Geospatial Analysis Center at the University of Minnesota Duluth. The GAC provides GIS support and expertise in classrooms and research projects in all five of UMD's colleges and many non academic programs. Our workshops and faculty consultations aim to expand the use of spatial analysis, and our services include everything from writing a proposal to data analysis. My job is to keep all this running and funded. In addition to UMD research and teaching, we have a significant number of external projects that keep our salaries stable and provide valuable work opportunities for undergraduate students,” she replied.

“GAC serves as a technical resource center for Hazard Mitigation Planning in the State of Minnesota. Many of our external projects involve working with counties to update their Hazard Mitigation Plans. These plans include a lot of spatial analysis and mapping for natural hazards such as flooding, tornadoes and wind events as well as identifying vulnerable populations and public assets.”

What convinced her to enter this field? She replied, “I started out my career in water resources management — because of my love for wilderness and river travel — and learned about GIS in 1993 at the [U.S.] Forest Service when I was offered a volunteer position to help foresters complete timber sale maps on a green screen with 0s and 1s. Even this simplistic method of digitally mapping our forests intrigued me. While I continued my education in water resources, I took all the GIS classes I could while pursuing a Master of Science in Watershed Science. It was the application of GIS to river conservation and watershed management that made me realize I had connected the skills and subjects I love.

“After working at an EPA research lab as a GIS specialist for several years, I took a risk to expand my experience in a job in the UMD geography department managing a GIS lab and pursuing GIS projects. By building new collaborations one at a time, I learned that I actually love being a ‘generalist’ and applying my skills and experience in different fields all the time. I love that my job is never the same year after year. My ‘lab’ grew from one staff person to four plus students and now supports the entire campus community. There have been so many rewarding collaborations that we are fortunate to be a part of: GIS projects with economists, pharmacists, planners, farmers, ecologists, soil scientists, K12 educators, anthropologists, emergency managers, electricians, journalists, and student life administration to name some! What other field could you be in and work on meaningful research projects with all these professionals?” (Author’s note: Indeed!)

Who or what most inspired her during her career? “One thing that has been very important and inspiring to me in my career is being a part of GIS user groups, committees and the MN GIS/LIS Consortium (our state professional GIS association, MN GIS/LIS in short). For many years, I was the sole GIS specialist in my department, so making other connections was critical to my professional development. I’ve served on the executive board of the MN GIS/LIS and in leadership roles several times now, and I am always learning from my GIS professional peers in different sectors. I have been so inspired by the dedication and professionalism of GIS leaders in Minnesota as well as the spirit of collaboration across sectors.

“I am compelled to introduce the students who I work with to the great MN GIS professional community as well, and they know how much I value it. I strongly encourage the students who work with me to participate in the MN Student Scholarship Competition and mentoring program in Minnesota, as well as to apply for student scholarships to conferences anywhere they can. Now that I have been working with undergraduate students for over a decade, it is my former students who inspire me. About three-quarters of my former GIS student employees have stayed in the Minnesota GIS community. Nothing is more satisfying than seeing my former students take leadership roles in GIS positions and continue to engage in the GIS community by presenting, teaching, hosting user groups, GeoMentoring, and attending networking events for college students. One of my students was invited to the Esri stage with me at the Esri 2015 Education Summit, and another won an Esri award with her innovative story map portfolio in 2018.”

What project or initiative of which she is most proud? She replied, “Professional engagement in a fast-moving field such as the geospatial industry is critical for all of us. However, as an introvert, I especially believe in one-on-one connections, which sometimes don’t happen readily in the professional world without a third-party matchmaker or introduction. I love to be a connector, so I started a Young Professionals Mentor Program at the annual MN GIS/LIS Conference ten years ago for students or those just entering the field. It is still going strong with about 17 mentor pairs at each conference. I’m very proud of this program and to be part of a community where so many talented professionals are willing to talk with students or those just entering the field. I get many positive comments from the GIS professionals, many of whom sign up year after year.

“I was so honored last fall to receive the MN GIS/LIS Polaris Award for contributions to the Minnesota GIS community, particularly my role coordinating the Young Professionals Mentor Program and the Annual MN GIS/LIS Student Scholarship Competition. This year I started matching GIS professionals with K-12 educators at the annual MN Educator Day (sponsored by MN GIS/LIS) to jumpstart more GeoMentoring pairs. Largely due to our active GIS professional organization, GeoMentoring and GIS in K-12 schools has taken off in Minnesota.”

What is the most important thing on which Stacey thinks we need to work as the geography/education/science/geospatial community? “My experience is that most great GIS professionals are very good at collaborating. Often it is the GIS person in a project that brings a team together and has working relationships with multiple parties. The importance of communication cannot be understated. On one hand, it seems as though we work with non-GIS users all the time, but on the other hand it still seems like so many people (educators, leaders, data analysts) in all sort of fields still need an introduction to the power of spatial analysis and what it is! We need to keep telling people what we do with maps and spatial data, and tell the stories about how a map or analysis was the lightbulb that [insert story here: changed someone’s mind, got the project funded, made the planning better, or saved a life!].”

What is Stacey’s advice to a new professional in these fields? “Of course, my first bit of advice will be to get engaged with your local or regional GIS community. No matter where you are in your career, your involvement is valuable. And when you are not surrounded by your GIS peers, you should be sharing what GIS can do. In many fields the GIS expert may be cast in a support role. But remember, you have expertise using tools to help others see things in a different way which may give a project new direction or more meaning. So speak up and integrate your geospatial skills into your work portfolio, your hobby or your side job to demonstrate what you can do!”

“Tell me, what is it you plan to do with your one wild and precious life?” —Mary Oliver

GeoInspirations: Stacey Stark, Touching the Future

Understanding Coastal Imagery and Its Importance

Coastal imagery refers to high-resolution aerial and satellite imagery focused on coastal zones, shorelines, estuaries, and nearshore environments. These visual datasets are essential for observing physical changes in coastal landscapes, assessing erosion, tracking sediment movement, and supporting environmental stewardship. By capturing detailed spatial information about land–water interfaces, coastal imagery helps researchers, planners, and decision makers understand dynamic processes that shape coastal systems.

In a world where coastal development, sea level rise, and extreme weather events exert increasing pressure on shoreline communities, accurate and up-to-date imagery provides foundational insight. Coastal imagery enables the visualization of shoreline change over time, identification of vulnerable areas, and evaluation of the impacts of human activities and natural events on coastal environments.

Applications of Coastal Imagery in Science and Planning

Coastal imagery supports a wide range of applications in both science and practical planning. Environmental scientists use imagery to quantify changes in beach width, dune morphology, and wetland extent, informing habitat conservation and restoration efforts. Urban planners and civil engineers rely on coastal imagery to guide coastal zone management, infrastructure placement, shoreline protection design, and risk mitigation strategies.

These visual datasets also underpin hazard assessment, where imaging before and after storm events reveals damage patterns and informs emergency response planning. By integrating coastal imagery with geographic information systems and analytical tools, professionals can conduct change detection, spatial modeling, and temporal analysis that improve understanding of coastal dynamics.

Tools and Technologies for Coastal Image Capture

Capturing coastal imagery involves a combination of satellite sensors, aerial platforms, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Satellite imagery provides broad, repeatable coverage that is ideal for monitoring large coastal regions over time, while aerial photography from manned aircraft offers finer detail that supports site-specific analysis. UAVs equipped with high-resolution cameras and multispectral sensors complement these methods by delivering localized, on-demand imagery for focused study areas.

Advances in remote sensing technologies — including LiDAR, multispectral, and thermal imaging — expand the analytical potential of coastal imagery by revealing elevation, vegetation health, and thermal gradients. These rich data layers support integrated analyses that go beyond simple visuals to quantify physical and ecological conditions along coastal margins.

Driving Better Coastal Decisions with Spatial Insight

When used in mapping platforms and analytical workflows, coastal imagery becomes a powerful decision support asset. Coastal managers, environmental agencies, and research institutions use imagery-derived products to inform policy, prioritize conservation investments, and communicate complex spatial information to stakeholders. Interactive maps, change detection visualizations, and time-series analyses help translate raw imagery into meaningful insight that drives action.

As pressures on coastal systems grow, the value of reliable and detailed coastal imagery continues to increase. By enhancing visibility into shoreline processes and environmental change, these datasets support sustainability efforts and empower decision makers to plan adaptive, resilient responses to coastal challenges.

Coastal Imagery: Mapping Shorelines, Monitoring Change, Fueling Insight

The Strategic Role of Geographic Information Systems

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have become indispensable tools for organizations seeking to improve decision making and planning with location-aware insight. By integrating spatial data with analytical tools, GIS enables users to visualize patterns, examine geographic relationships, and interpret complex datasets within a geographic context. This spatial perspective helps leaders make better decisions in areas such as infrastructure development, resource allocation, environmental management, and service delivery.

GIS goes beyond traditional mapping by providing dynamic analysis that unifies data sources, reveals trends that would otherwise remain hidden, and supports scenario planning. Whether assessing market potential, optimizing logistics, or planning community services, GIS puts decisions into a geographic framework that enhances clarity and strategic alignment.

Improving Planning Outcomes with Spatial Analysis

One of the greatest strengths of GIS lies in its ability to inform planning processes with objective, data-driven insight. Planners use spatial analysis to identify optimal locations for new facilities, estimate service coverage, and model future growth patterns. Tools such as heat maps, proximity analysis, and overlay functions help reveal where demand, risk, or opportunity is most concentrated. By visualizing alternative scenarios on interactive maps, decision makers gain a more comprehensive understanding of potential outcomes before committing to action.

This spatial approach also enhances forecasting by incorporating geographic variables such as connectivity, terrain, and demographic distribution, which traditional business intelligence alone cannot capture. As a result, planning becomes more resilient and responsive to real-world conditions.

Enhancing Operational Efficiency and Risk Management

In addition to strategic planning, GIS improves everyday operations by optimizing workflows and resource deployment. Organizations can use spatial insights to refine routing for field teams, monitor assets in real time, and allocate resources more efficiently based on demand patterns. This operational clarity helps reduce costs, improve service performance, and strengthen responsiveness to challenges.

GIS also supports risk assessment and mitigation by mapping hazard exposure, infrastructure vulnerabilities, and critical service dependencies. Planners and managers can identify areas at higher risk, prioritize interventions, and communicate complex risk profiles more effectively through intuitive visuals.

Geographic Information Systems serve as a common platform for collaboration across departments and stakeholders. Interactive maps and spatial dashboards enable multidisciplinary teams to explore data together, share insights, and align goals more effectively. Visual tools help bridge technical and non-technical audiences by transforming complex information into intuitive representations that support shared understanding and informed discussion.

Through collaborative GIS environments, organizations build a culture of data-informed decision making where spatial intelligence informs both tactical actions and long-term strategies. This unified approach increases transparency, builds consensus, and strengthens the overall impact of planning and operational decisions.

How Geographic Information Systems Improve Decision Making and Planning

Advanced Aerial Imagery for Enhanced Spatial Understanding

Getmapping has provided newly captured high-resolution aerial photography for the Enfield area, offering detailed views of the landscape that support a wide range of mapping and planning applications. These high-quality images capture fine-scale features of the built and natural environment, giving planners, analysts, and decision makers the ability to examine spatial detail with precision. Enhanced aerial imagery contributes to more accurate base maps, improved visualization, and deeper understanding of local geographic patterns.

The aerial photography delivers a level of clarity that benefits both immediate situational assessment and long-term spatial analysis. Urban planners can use the imagery to assess land use changes, identify infrastructure assets, and support development projects with current visual data. Emergency responders and public safety teams also benefit from detailed imagery that improves situational awareness and preparedness.

Supporting Planning, Development, and Environmental Assessment

High-resolution aerial imagery is a critical resource for local authorities, consultants, and developers working in built environment and environmental planning. In Enfield, this detailed photographic dataset enables teams to quantify spatial relationships, analyze growth trends, and monitor changes over time. From infrastructure maintenance planning to environmental impact assessments, accurate aerial views enhance the quality of spatial decision making and help align projects with community goals.

Land management and transportation agencies can incorporate these aerial images into geographic information systems (GIS) to improve routing analysis, network planning, and asset tracking. The clarity and precision of the imagery support workflows that depend on up-to-date visual context for mapping and analysis.

Enhancing GIS, Mapping, and Visualization Workflows

The aerial photography supplied by Getmapping elevates GIS and mapping workflows by providing a robust visual foundation that complements vector and attribute data. Spatial professionals can overlay reference layers, perform change detection, and generate interactive maps that communicate insights clearly to internal teams and external stakeholders. The imagery improves the interpretability of spatial models and contributes to more effective communication of analytical results.

Visualization tools that leverage high-resolution aerial photography allow organizations to create compelling maps and interactive dashboards that support presentations, stakeholder engagement, and strategic communication. These tools help bridge the gap between raw data and intuitive geographic understanding, making complex spatial information more accessible to decision makers, partners, and the public.

Delivering Value Across Sectors and Use Cases

The availability of updated high-resolution aerial photography in Enfield benefits a broad range of sectors, from urban development and environmental monitoring to utilities management and public safety. Accurate imagery supports evidence-based planning, more informed investment decisions, and enhanced operational coordination. By investing in detailed aerial data, organizations improve their ability to anticipate challenges, optimize resource allocation, and deliver better outcomes for communities and stakeholders.

This aerial photography initiative underscores the value of quality geospatial data and its role in strengthening planning, analysis, and communication across diverse applications. High-resolution visual datasets continue to be essential assets for modern mapping, location intelligence, and spatial decision support.

Getmapping Supplies High-Resolution Aerial Photography of Enfield

What Is Spatial Analytics and Why It Matters

Spatial analytics combines geographic context with traditional data analysis to reveal patterns, trends, and relationships linked to location. This form of analytics extends beyond basic reporting by embedding spatial dimensions into decision processes, enabling organizations to understand not just “what” happened, but also “where” and “why.” By visualizing data on maps and layering multiple datasets — from demographics and transportation networks to customer behavior and environmental factors — spatial analytics provides deeper context that supports smarter, more informed decisions.

Organizations across sectors are recognizing the value of spatial analytics as a core component of business intelligence. It helps bridge siloed datasets and unifies insights in a geographic framework that supports strategic planning, operational efficiency, and market understanding.

Enhancing Strategic Planning with Geographic Insight

Spatial analytics plays a pivotal role in strategic planning by enabling decision makers to identify opportunities and risks tied to specific locations. For example, businesses can analyze customer trade areas, optimize site selection for expansion, and assess competitive landscapes with precise geographic models. Urban planners and public agencies can evaluate infrastructure needs and service accessibility across regions, improving resource allocation and long-term planning outcomes.

By integrating geospatial insight into analytics workflows, organizations improve forecasting, scenario planning, and performance evaluation. This leads to more resilient strategies that account for geographic variability and real-world constraints.

Improving Operational Efficiency Across Functions

Beyond strategic initiatives, spatial analytics enhances day-to-day operations by optimizing logistics, service delivery, and asset management. Routing and network analysis help reduce transportation costs and improve response times for field teams, while geospatial monitoring supports maintenance planning and resource distribution. Retailers can align inventory and staffing with demand patterns, and utility providers can monitor infrastructure health using spatial data trends.

Operational teams equipped with spatial analytics gain greater situational awareness, enabling faster responses to emerging issues and enabling continuous performance improvement.

Driving Competitive Advantage Through Location Intelligence

In an increasingly data-driven marketplace, spatial analytics offers a competitive edge by uncovering insights that standard analytics may overlook. By embedding location intelligence into decision workflows, organizations can differentiate service offerings, tailor customer experiences, and anticipate geographic trends ahead of competitors. This spatial perspective enriches analytical capabilities, improves operational outcomes, and supports innovation across departments.

Leaders investing in spatial analytics build more agile, responsive organizations capable of navigating complexity with clarity. As spatial data becomes more accessible and analytical tools evolve, the power of geographic insight continues to grow as a core driver of business success.

The Power of Spatial Analytics in Modern Business Decision Making

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GeoComm and ELi Technology Announce Partnership aimed at Enhancing School Safety with new “ATLS Location Service”

GeoComm and RapidSOS Empower Emergency Communications Centers with Indoor Maps Creating Enhanced Emergency Response Location Information

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Earth Blox prepares for growth in response to booming demand for nature and climate analytics

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Press Releases

Share Your Geospatial News with a Global Audience

Directions Magazine invites companies, organizations, and industry professionals to contribute press releases that communicate important developments in geospatial technology, mapping, data analytics, and location intelligence. By submitting your press announcements, you gain exposure to a global audience of GIS specialists, spatial analysts, planners, and decision makers who actively seek timely, relevant news that shapes industry discussion and innovation.

Whether you are announcing a new product release, strategic partnership, research milestone, award, or event, contributing your press release helps ensure your story reaches the right audience. The process is designed to be straightforward, allowing contributors to present clear, well-structured announcements that resonate with readers interested in cutting-edge spatial solutions and market trends.

Guidelines for Effective Press Release Submission

To maximize the visibility and impact of your announcement, ensure your press release is professionally formatted and focused on newsworthy content. A compelling headline, concise summary, key specifications or results, and clear contact information improve readability and distribution value. Highlight the significance of your announcement and how it contributes to geospatial innovation or addresses real-world challenges in mapping, data workflows, or location-driven decision making.

High-quality submissions help readers quickly understand what is new, why it matters, and how it relates to broader industry themes. Well-written press releases also support search visibility, enhancing the discoverability of your brand and solutions by professionals searching for the latest advances in geospatial technology.

Benefits of Contributing Your Press Release

Publishing your press release on Directions Magazine positions your news alongside authoritative content that reflects market developments and technology progressions. Your announcement is presented within a trusted industry context, helping enhance credibility and attract attention from potential partners, clients, media, and technology adopters. Regular contributors build ongoing visibility and strengthen their presence within the geospatial community.

By contributing press releases, you also participate in a broader industry dialogue that connects innovation, research, and practical application. This exposure can support lead generation, brand recognition, and community engagement while fostering knowledge exchange across global markets.

Submit Your Press Releases to Directions Magazine

Ed. note: This article was updated since it was first published. Figure 6 has been changed and the issue regarding block (see first comment) has been addressed.

The human brain has a limited capacity to store and process large quantities of information. To handle overwhelming complexities of detail the mind will often break down large chunks of data into manageable tracts for processingi. A prominent topic in which information gets segmented is place identification. In geography, areas are frequently divided into smaller regions. In the United States, the country is a collection of states and territories comprised of counties with cities and towns. These regions are further subdivided into officially recognized designations: ZIP Codes, census tract groups and census tracks based on numeric designations.

This article will outline a process used for breaking down cities and towns into alternative regions structured on name recognitionii: neighborhoods, districts or other local areas. Based on the demographic data gathered using these techniques - collected from the 250 largest U.S. cities' neighborhoods - evidence will be given to support the potential benefits to quantifying city data based on neighborhood names and their accompanying structures rather than traditionally used U.S. Censusiii regions. The process defines neighborhood boundaries based on commonly recognized characteristics such as widespread reference by community, as well as natural and human demarcations.

Through defined neighborhood datasets and boundaries, the study will attempt to show that locally correlated attributes with recognizable names can provide cohesive information for a given region. The analysis hopes to convince the reader that neighborhoods, with their flexibility to form organically, prove in many cases to be a better solution to collecting demographic data than census measurements, which are often confined to a fixed quantity amalgamation of census tracts, units that are generally restricted to a set population for a given regioniv.

The U.S. Censusv designates that a census tract typically ranges between 1,500 - 8,000 people, with a stated ideal size being 4,000 individuals. This uniformity for a tract group forces demographic units to conform to a fixed population rather than a neighborhood demographic that may vary in population (e.g. census tracts for San Francisco, California average 4,000 people, while San Francisco neighborhoods range in population from 250 - 37,000 individuals)vi.

By arbitrarily combining fixed measurements, demographic consistency is greatly diminished, in part because fixed population sizes force exclusion of nearby regions that may share characteristics or restrict inclusion of areas with a different distinct identity. This problem becomes more pervasive as groupings become larger, as seen with ZIP Code divisions where size (roughly 2-5 census block groups)vii boundaries are chiefly determined by the amount of mail that can be delivered from a post office, not by determining an area's socio-economic characteristics.

Ethnicity and income also play a roll in defining certain neighborhoods. In most large U.S. cities you will find ethnic communities. These clusters often form the basis of neighborhoods. By definition they will often have members who share a certain amount of continuity in their life style, income and activism. Over time, their activities may inspire similar/like-minded groups to move in, while encouraging others to leave. In San Francisco extreme cases of this can be seen in the density of the Chinese population in "Chinatown" and the gay population found in the Castro. The demographic data below show that neighborhoods come in various sizes with different characteristics.

A neighborhood is a place built on identity. Physical neighborhoods [generally] form around specific geographic characteristics (Identifying Urban Neighborhoods: An Annotated Biography Thomas F. Broden, Ronn Lirkwood, Susan Roberts, John Roos, Thomas Swartz Council of Planning Librarians Institute for Urban Studies Notre Dame (1980)), deriving boundaries from distinct elements: a hill, a seaside, a central district, or from surrounding roads. These distinctions such as "hills" and "valleys" often define desirability (e.g. a higher elevation with a view probably being more valuable than a reclaimed lowland "mudflat"). Other neighborhoods use functional, political or economic differentiation united by a common culture, age and heritage or through distinctive characteristics such as a gated community, commerce designated area, industrial zone or a "seedy part" of town.

To begin our analysis, we need to create a systematic way to define the physical boundaries of neighborhoods from which data can be quantified. From the beginning we understand that describing neighborhood locations precisely could prove controversial. People have different opinions on what constitutes a neighborhoodviii. For this reason we consulted experts in GIS mapping, city planning and real estate sales, as well as ordinary citizens, to supply input on building our neighborhood map designations. While achieving an absolute consensus for defining neighborhoods would be unlikely, our goal is to provide a comprehensive system that generates neighborhood data that many users - especially individuals conducting online queries or doing neighborhood research - would find helpful in seeking local information. After careful study, a systematic multi-step process was created that tries to quantify what defines a physical neighborhood structure (see Process List below). We also realized that if it could be done successfully the social and economic gains could be substantialix for users.

In our observations, we notice the historical significance of neighborhoods. In many regions, neighborhood names are often passed on through an oral tradition where local inhabitants make reference to a given area, often based on an original name given to a subdivision by a developer (in Berkeley, California districts like the Claremont, Elmwood or by a region's functional use). Then over time neighborhood boundaries are further refined by city professionals that quantify a region's borders by setting demarcations based on zoning, district boundaries or through road construction. Below is an outline of some elements of our 20-step process used to define neighborhoods. Different nations will have variations on how data are collected.

Process List for collecting neighborhood data:

Go to official city sites to see if mapping data are publicly available. Generally follow given city neighborhood boundary definitions closely where available so that data follow the consensus of the community.

View maps that can be used as map backgrounds to raster images; try to have at lease two sources of data to make comparisons.

Visit sites with local information: official city sites, local chamber of commerce sites, etc.

Call local city chamber of commerce, city planning or regional real estate agents to ask for descriptions (identify yourself as part of a research group, where data gathered serve the community).

Visit or send out emails to local real estate agents or local residents to contribute information online.

Many of the datasets collected are in collaboration with city planning offices, chambers of commerce and real estate agencies; we have a policy to offer the aiding community free copies of the processed digital neighborhood maps and demographic data. We also offer the neighborhood data free of charge for academic research and for noble causes (e.g. public health).

Methodology for Recognizing and Defining Physical Neighborhood Boundariesx

Descriptive Boundaries Method: Identifies neighborhoods using existing maps and natural boundaries with a combination of data from city planning offices, chambers of commerce, local real estate firms and other sourcesxi. By comparing neighborhood descriptions with local maps, you can get an understanding of how neighborhoods are perceived by different members of a local community.

Areas where a strong consensus exists - usually confirmed by several independent sources - usually get incorporated into maps first. Old established cities (e.g. Boston, New York) generally have clear distinct neighborhood designations. It appears that with age, a city's established neighborhood identity solidifies over timexii.

When conflicting, ambiguous or non-existing boundaries occur, local organizations within those areas are contacted in hopes of resolving unidentified neighborhood areas. Based on information provided, a best guess estimate is chosen or the area is left blank. The neighborhoods are then traced out by locating major streets and other boundaries. Maps generated with this method often are quite comprehensive. As a neighborhood changes or new information becomes available, modifications can be made.

The above image shows an Indianapolis neighborhood map generated from descriptions of an online newspaper website.

Deduction Method: This method uses maps and satellite images to estimate neighborhood demarcations. Different neighborhoods usually render recognizable patterns (e.g. squiggly patterns often represent hills where the roads are not straight) on satellite images. These patterns often consist of commonalities that neighborhoods share: style, age, landscape or other factors. Based on these differences coupled with a neighborhood's approximate location, an accurate boundary estimate can often be made. Factors such as road accessibility and terrain can play an integral part of a neighborhood's formation. A technique used to measure the Deduction Method's accuracy is to map out a city's neighborhoods with this method - where neighborhood boundaries are known - and compare the results of known neighborhoods to hypothesized samples.

Today different land uses are mostly traced out by humans. In the future OIR (Optical Image Recognition) systems will be able to identify structures, extract commonalities and cluster data based on image patterns. For example, picture data will recognize neighborhood clusters based on relative housing styles or grouped lot sizes. There may even come a time when demographic inferences are made based on the car parked in the driveway.

The above image shows an accurate neighborhood map of San Francisco based on visually identified neighborhoods on a satellite image.

Other images will also give inference to neighborhood qualities; parks, stadiums, golf courses and harbors will be identified and classified by comparing them to stock items in a database with known characteristics. Structural information gleaned can then provide an insight into neighborhood characteristics along with already know, compiled information to give a demographic preference livability score. In our collection we have already collected locations for more than 1.2 million U.S. places of interest that can be factored into a quality of life matrix. As our understanding of neighborhood formation and characteristics increases, we speculate that algorithms will be created that will be able to discern different neighborhood uniqueness, similar to the way pattern recognition software can differentiate different types of buildings, as well as other geographic structures. This neighborhood demographic analysis will be able to aid a user in selecting a neighborhood that most closely resembles a user's desired characteristics.

Scatter Plot Method: This method aggregates a collection of data points to assemble a map from which neighborhood boundaries can be constructed. This method is useful for allowing many users to contribute to the construction of neighborhood boundaries, as well as being able to monitor changes to neighborhood patterns in adjacent areas. For example, real estate agent listings on Craigslist, Realtor.com or Google Base could integrate the scatter plot method to help users to define neighborhood locations. Location aware mobile devices (GPS) will conceivable play a significant roll in creating boundaries as location coordinates become associated with "tagged" descriptive information.

The scatter plot data show that clustering exists between San Francisco neighborhoodsxiii. This method of data collection holds great promise for mapping neighborhoods. As people gain access to GPS-enabled cameras, a flood of corresponding location data should ensue, enabling an ever increasing amount of neighborhood boundary data for users. These data should also provide neighborhood name recognition statistics for given areas.

We produced boundary data at both U.S. government issued TIGER level (red) and the more exacting 1.5 - 3.0 meter quality level (green). TIGER data were needed to aggregate U.S. Census demographic data for neighborhoods and the higher quality data were needed for precision matching of streets.

• Richard Dorall, Factle Maps & University of Malaya

• Michael Cho, UC Berkeley iMap co-author

• UC Berkeley Interns and Kathy Dombrowski

• Shawn Newsam, UC Merced - Image Technology

• Center of Entrepreneurship and Technology

iAtkinson, R.C. & Shiffrin, R.M. (1968) Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K.W. Spence and J.T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 8. London: Academic Press.

iiBased on informal sampling of over 25 people who reside in the San Francisco Bay Area to see how many could name their neighborhood vs. census block. A majority could name their neighborhood or a nearby neighborhood; most residents did not know what constituted a census block and only one person responded with a census block answer. It was not confirmed if it actually was a correct answer. In the future a more formal study should be done on the number of people who can accurately define which neighborhood they reside in.

viBased on Kathleen Dombrowski and Bernt Wahl raw neighborhood data, of 150 U.S. cities with 7000 neighborhoods (size, population, density, and demographic statistics) provided by Factle Map Co. based on 2006 MapInfo data.

viiMore information about census blocks and block groups are available in the glossary at the U.S. Census website: http://www.census.gov/

viiiShaping Neighborhoods: A Guide for Health, Sustainability and Vitality, Hugh Barton, Marcus Grant and Richard Guise (2003) Spon Press, London

ixBased on an internal HomeGain study, the firm believes adding neighborhood search terms will boost SEO search revenues (2nd largest online real estate firm) by 20% or millions of dollars (Bernt Wahl, consultant (2005)). Based on the firm's internal data analysis it is estimated that about 20-30% of home buyers would prefer to search for homes that include neighborhood regions. Internal traffic records have shown a strong correlation (internal HomeGain traffic records (2006)). Based on similar correlation study if Google could capture 5% of its $500 million local search revenue from targeted neighborhood results, this would increase revenues by $25 million.

xPortions of descriptions and uses are based on prior collaborations, Malaysian Team - (2001-2008), HomeGain Team (2005-2006), MOT Leading Edge Completion Team (2006)

xiReadings on reputation and sourcing [add comments]

Topic Location Intelligence

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